Food additives were originally designed to support human progress by providing a fast and secure food supply and, in turn, increasing life expectancy. The progression of food technology began with agriculture, which originated in the Fertile Crescent. Over time, this expansion led to modern innovations, including food additives.
Food additives are substances added to food products to enhance texture, flavor, appearance, or preservation. In recent years, they have increasingly been geared toward improving the safety, freshness, taste, and nutritional value of food products.
Food additives began to be widely implemented during the World Wars. The United States had thousands of men leave for war and women working in factories, which required more food supplies. This created increased demand for processed foods and food additives to meet supply needs (Springate pars. 4–6; Huebbe par. 6).
As the technology of food additives advanced, regulation also expanded. During the 19th century, the U.S. increased the amount of chemicals added to food for the purpose of preserving products and decreasing food waste. With this new technology, food products improved in flavor and shelf life; however, long-term effects went unstudied and health risks were unassessed.
In 1937, a solvent—ethylene glycol—was put on the market with no chemical safety testing. This led to more than 100 deaths across fifteen states. Soon after, President Franklin Roosevelt amended the Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act of 1938, which prohibited harmful substances from being added to foods. The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) required companies to provide evidence that food additives were safe to consume (Lam par. 1). While this helped prevent short-term health risks, it did not adequately account for long-term risks.
In 1958, an amendment to the Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act prohibited any food additive from being added to a food product before FDA approval. This amendment was called the Delaney Amendment (Standards pars. 1–4). Its impact was to prevent additives with lethal effects; however, food products can still contain additives that contribute to chronic long-term health issues.
In 2001, perchlorate—a chemical that dissolves easily in water and is used in rocket fuel, fireworks, and explosives—was found in the urine of all 2,820 Americans tested. Within the food industry, perchlorate was used as a conductivity enhancer and an antistatic agent for dry food packaging. Although research has associated chronic long-term exposure to perchlorate with severe health risks for pregnant women and fetal cognitive development, the FDA approved its usage twice: in 1963 and 2005 (Maffini par. 6).
As the 20th century progressed, more amendments were introduced to enforce stronger restrictions, including:
Infant Formula Act (1980)
Nutritional Labeling and Education Act (1990)
Food Quality Protection Act (1996)
The Infant Formula Act was amended to ensure infants received the minimum required nutrients and met FDA regulation. This was influenced by an incident in the 1970s where a company removed salt from formula, leading to chloride deficiencies in infants. The Nutritional Labeling and Education Act required nutrition labels and health claims to meet FDA standards. The Food Quality Protection Act strengthened pesticide regulation and encouraged safer pesticide development for food products (Lam pars. 8, 11, 13).
Despite progress in food additive regulation, the United States continues to face challenges enforcing chemical regulation in the food industry. One major limitation comes from loopholes and limited FDA authority—especially the Generally Recognized As Safe (GRAS) loophole. GRAS allows companies to request exemptions for additives that have a history of being considered safe. This permits manufacturers to classify additives as GRAS without FDA confirmation (Maffini par. 17).
The National Center for Food Safety and Technology (NCFST) claimed that “chemical food safety issues” include natural toxins, processing-produced toxins, food allergens, heavy metals (lead, arsenic, mercury, cadmium), industrial chemicals (benzene, perchlorate), packaging contaminants, and unconventional contaminants such as melamine (Jackson par. 1).
Because technology has enabled mass production of food products in the United States, it has also enabled the widespread use of additives that contribute to physical health issues, addiction disorders, and complications in brain development.
The original intent of food additives was to make food convenient and expand human life expectancy. However, food additives can have the opposite effect due to physical issues caused by artificial substances.
Ultra-processed foods (UPFs) are associated with increased Chronic Noncommunicable Diseases (NCDs), including obesity, diabetes, cancer, and heart disease. As more countries develop the modern “Western diet”—characterized by high saturated fats and refined sugars—rates of NCDs rise (Lustig par. 12).
Companies often deflect criticism by placing blame on the quantity of food consumers eat rather than the quality. A major driver of NCD development is sugar, especially fructose-containing sweeteners such as sucrose, high-fructose corn syrup, maple syrup, and agave. While sugar is a major ingredient in UPFs, excessive salt, fat, and caffeine also have adverse effects. The issue is the amount of salt, fat, or caffeine added, which contributes to NCDs (Lustig pars. 18–24).
Processed food impacts more than organs—it also affects dental health. Oral disease increased dramatically from 1990 to 2015. Oral disease describes conditions that affect tissues in the mouth such as tooth decay, gum disease, and oral cancer, and many are lifelong conditions.
The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) reported that:
one in five adults ages 20 to 64 has untreated cavities, and
nearly half of adults age 30 or older show signs of gum disease (CDC par. 3).
Food additive consumption—especially through fast foods—has contributed to weakened oral health, including distorted oral microbiomes, oral inflammation, and oral disease (Mackenbach pars. 23–24).
Mass production of processed foods also contributes to immune system dysfunction. Ian A. Myles stated:
“The Western diet is characterized by a high intake of saturated and omega-6 fatty acids, reduced omega-3 fat intake, an overuse of salt, and too much refined sugar… it is becoming increasingly clear that the modern diet also damages the immune system…” (Myles par. 1).
Omega-6 fatty acids, when overconsumed, can contribute to cardiovascular disease and immune dysfunction, while omega-3 is associated with anti-inflammatory effects. The Western diet contains increased omega-6 intake, which raises the probability of immune dysfunction in the U.S. (Myles par. 11). When gut health declines, multiple systems in the body weaken—including immune defense—showing how diet is interconnected with overall physical well-being.
Despite the known harms of processed food, these products are still heavily produced and widely purchased. Food additives have distorted consumer perceptions through their addictive qualities.
Addiction is defined as “exhibiting a compulsive, chronic, physiological or psychological need for a habit-forming substance, behavior, or activity” (Definition line 1).
Companies prioritize profit and often engineer food products to produce dopamine “rushes.” Many products assumed to contain minimal sugar, salt, or fat actually contain significant amounts—despite health recommendations to reduce intake.
Robert H. Lustig warned:
Americans consume an average of 19.5 tsp/day of added sugar. The American Heart Association recommends reducing added sugar to 6 tsp/day for women and 9 tsp/day for men. He also noted that half of added sugar comes from foods people do not realize contain sugar—such as salad dressing, bread, tomato sauce, and ketchup—meaning even if consumers cut out desserts and soft drinks, many would still exceed healthy sugar limits (Lustig par. 64).
Accessibility further fuels UPF addiction. Fast food and frozen meals are cheap, fast, and widely available. Over time, many consumers adopt a low-effort, high-reward mindset due to convenience. Meanwhile, organic foods—grown without synthetic chemicals or genetically modified components—have increased in price and become less accessible. In 2002, organic foods were twice as expensive as processed foods, and the price gap has continued to grow.
Rachel Adams explains the proposed “food addiction” cycle:
When palatable food is consumed, dopamine is released. Over time, repeated increases in dopamine can lead to downregulation of dopamine receptors, reducing pleasure from the same foods. This leads to craving, withdrawal, tolerance, and compensatory behavior—increasing food consumption and reinforcing compulsive eating patterns (Adams par. 27).
Research also shows food additives can activate brain circuits similar to drug responses. Kyle S. Burger concluded that fat and sugar can have separate and intertwined effects on the brain. High-fat foods increase brain activity in regions including the postcentral gyrus, hippocampus, and inferior frontal gyrus, while sugar activates gustatory regions involved in taste perception. When combined, fat can enhance sugar’s effect, elevating reward and gustatory circuits that influence food acceptance and rejection (Stice par. 4; Lustig par. 28).
Like opioids, sugar can also produce withdrawal effects. Anecdotal reports describe withdrawals using words such as “irritable,” “shaky,” “anxious,” and “depressed” (Lustig par. 23). In short, companies trade consumer health for profit by engineering addictive foods through accessibility and convenience.
Food additives and ultra-processed diets affect not only the body but also brain development. Cognitive impairment is correlated with the Western diet. These dietary patterns are associated with memory impairments and changes in the hippocampus—the region involved in memory and learning.
Francis and Stevenson conducted an experiment involving two groups: one eating a more organic diet and one eating a Western diet. Participants completed hippocampal tasks (such as verbal paired associates and logical memory subtests). The Western diet group was less accurate when recalling what they had eaten and showed reduced hunger signaling, requiring them to eat more before reporting the same satiety as the other group (Beilharz par. 11).
Other studies examined high-fat diets and their effects on mood, attention, and memory. In one study, male subjects showed impaired attention span, reduced speed of retrieval, and depressed mood after only five days. In another study, male subjects showed decreased reaction times and reduced attention spans after seven days (Beilharz par. 15).
Processed foods have also been associated with worsening mental health outcomes. In surveys from the National Health and Nutrition Examination, UPF consumption was linked with depressive symptoms in U.S. adults. In one study, 1,208 participants met criteria for depressive symptoms and were found to consume more UPFs than others. Those with diets consisting of 73% UPFs were 35% more likely to show depressive symptoms (Zheng par. 21).
Children are also affected. Yan Wu et al. studied whether there was a correlation between ADHD diagnosis and processed food dietary patterns. Their findings showed a processed food–sweets pattern was positively associated with ADHD, and certain eating behaviors (such as a desire to drink) were also associated (Yan par. 19; Buka par. 9).
Overall, the Western diet commonly found in the United States has affected cognitive function in both adults and children, reducing quality of life and worsening health outcomes.
Food additives were created with the intent to preserve nutritional value, extend shelf life, and reduce food waste. Preservatives slow decomposition and help prevent contamination.
The FDA states that preservatives slow spoilage caused by mold, air, bacteria, fungi, or yeast. They also help control contamination that can cause foodborne illness, including life-threatening botulism, and prevent fresh-cut fruits (such as apples) from browning when exposed to air (Program par. 2).
Reducing food waste matters because of its carbon footprint. U.S. food waste is estimated to equal 170 million tons of carbon dioxide annually (Bubzy par. 3). However, it is still detrimental for the U.S. to continue manufacturing ultra-processed foods at current levels due to major health concerns: oral disease, NCDs, addiction disorders, and cognitive impairment. Although there are benefits to food additives, the pros do not outweigh the cons.
The modern food industry has distorted public understanding of organic and nutritious foods. To reduce misinformation, there should be a mandatory section within health classes focused on nutrition education. This section should explain how processed foods affect the body and mind, where to find cheaper reliable food sources (such as local farmers markets), and how to prepare nutritious meals.
This education would encourage awareness of the risks of processed food consumption and reduce reliance on convenience foods such as fast foods and frozen meals. It should also teach students how to advocate for legislation that restricts harmful food additives and supports safer food technology.
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